The following are excerpts from:
Hiemstra, R. (1981,
2002) 'Howard McClusky and
educational gerontology' the encyclopedia of informal education,
www.infed.org/thinkers/mcclusky.htm. Last
updated: May 15, 2002
( For full text article go to www.infed.org/thinkers/mcclusky.htm
Howard's faith in limitless human potential is seen in his
thinking about adults as learners and his challenge that learners still can do
more:
One can teach an old dog new tricks! He [sic.] may not
want to learn new tricks or he may think that his old tricks are good enough,
but an "old dog" can no longer hide behind an assumed lack of ability
to learn as an excuse for not learning. In fact, because of his age there are
probably some tricks that an old dog can learn better than a younger. (1971b, p. 416)
Many of
his writings have been devoted to helping others gain a broad understanding of
the conditions leading people to constantly learn new tricks. He also has used
his broad background and training in psychology, his endless appetite for
reading, and his penchant for keeping up with all aspects of research on humans
to educate about adults as learners. In 1959 he and a colleague summarized much
of the existing theory and research related to the psychology of adults
(McClusky and Jensen, 1959). Four years later Howard described the various
developmental stages in adulthood (McClusky, 1963a). Many of his additional
writings and speeches have described such features as the human condition, the
need to consider the human organism's personality as an important part of the
stimulus-response model, and the history of adult learning theory; perhaps the
most comprehensive of these is a chapter that describes the relevance of
psychological knowledge for adult education (McClusky, 1964). A recent article
builds a literary bridge describing the knowledge growth in adult learning from
the Thorndike era through the extensive research of the 1970s (McClusky,
1978a).
One of
the results of McClusky's synthesizing activities related to research on adult
psychology and learning has been his long and active call for an instructional
body of knowledge specific to the adult condition:
Data from various sources are providing a growing case
for a differential psychology of adults. Already it is clear that the pattern
of abilities increases in difference from adolescence through early adulthood
and on into the middle and late years. Moreover, we cannot assume equivalence
of stimulation and motivation in these successive stages of change. . . more
research is greatly needed, but it must be conducted with concepts and
instruments that are most relevant to the unique features of the adult
condition. For example, more work needs to be done on an appropriate criterion
of adult intelligence, on "age fair" tests, an on devices that get
beneath the surface of the adult personality. (McClusky, 1965, p. 197)
He has
translated his call for specific knowledge and more research into educational
terms which constitute an occupational basis for the professional existence of
many of us:
Our thesis then is simply that education becomes the
generic term for the teaching-learning process which in all its variety and
manifold settings constitutes the major instrument which our society has
devised for reducing the number and damage of dysfunctional responses and for
increasing our capability in coping creatively with change. (McClusky, 1971a,
p. 217)
Howard
's transition to considerable concern about the older adult, therefore, has not
been difficult:
I have come into the field of gerontology from the
domain of adult education. The gerontological movement is geared pretty much to
the protection of older people and the production of a floor of support, so
that older people can live in dignity and self-respect and as independent as
possible. This is as it should be. But the educational approach is a little different.
As educators, we assume that the client is capable of improvement. (McClusky,
1976b, p. 118)
Thus, because of its faith in the learning ability of
Older Persons and because of its confidence in the improvement that results
from learning, education in contrast with other areas in the field of Aging can
be invested with a climate of optimism which is highly attractive to those who
may be involved in its operation. (McClusky, 1973a, p. 60)
This
positive assumption by educators that their clients are capable of improvement,
learning, and change throughout life has facilitated the evolvement of teaching
and learning strategies specifically for the older adult. Howard perhaps says
it best of all those who talk about such strategies:
So, what I am saying is that if we approach the field of
gerontology from an educational standpoint, we constantly see evidence of the
fact that older people are learning and can renew their faith in their ability
to learn. As a consequence, we must find ways to help people rediscover,
reinvigorate and reactivate their latent interests and talents they never
thought they had. (McClusky, 1976b, p. 119)
We can
see evidence that educational gerontology professionals are finding means of
helping older persons enhance their learning abilities. Programs like
Elderhostel, the increasing numbers of older students in college and adult
education programs, and the growing successes by older people in learning
endeavors are some of the examples to which one can point. Perhaps the next step
will be the identification through research of teaching strategies and
approaches that will maximize such successes. Howard gives us some clues as to
what is needed:
Generally speaking . . . good strategy is to create an
environment that is supportive, and to learn techniques that can reinforce
learning. For example, we should be very clear as to what we expect them to
learn. We should give them techniques of imagination, combining both auditory
and visual imagery. Self-pacing is another important procedure. We should allow
the older person to pace himself [sic.] and learn in his own way and in his own
time, without too much pressure. (McClusky, 1976b, p. 121)
Much
of the recent research described in Educational Gerontology has examined many
of these suggestions but additional research and development is still required
if Howard's belief in the profession's ability to facilitate human potential
development is to be fully realized.
An
attempt to capture all of the additional contributions made by Howard McClusky
is not possible in one short article. However, there are three other areas in
which Howard has been interested that have high research potential to those
interested in educational gerontology.
Time
Perception. Howard has been interested for several years in the perceptions
of time by adults and what relevance such perceptions have on a person's
psychological makeup:
The psychology of adults is distinguished from the
psychology of earlier years in the experience of time. The major events of life
can be expected to occur in the plus or minus five decades of adult life. To be
aware that one is behind on, or ahead of schedule of life expectations can have
a profound effect on life adjustment. (McClusky, 1963a, p. 18)
Such
perceptions may have a profound effect on a person 's receptivity to learning
opportunities. "It makes a great deal of difference in one's orientation
whether the future lies ahead as it does at 20, is here today as it may appear
at 40, or is past in memory or ahead in one's children as it is often viewed at
70." (McClusky, 1964, p. 160)
A
related feature of this perception of time is the common experience that time
appears to pass more rapidly each year of our life. There may be a partial
explanation in what Howard has referred to as the "arithmetic of
time":
At 16, one year is one 16th of the time a person has
lived, at 40 one year is a 40th and at 70 a 70th of the time lived. Thus with
advancing years, a unit of time, e.g., one year, becomes a decreasing fraction
of the time experienced and is so perceived. This fact added to the decrease in
perception of life expectancy undoubtedly has a profound and pervasive impact
on the attitudes of adults as the years unfold—an impact which in turn also
affects an adult's perception of his [sic.] potential as a learner. (McClusky,
1971b, p.423)
Similarly,
the demands of time on an adult can be very great. One pull often competes with
another pressure or commitment, frequently putting active learning endeavors at
a disadvantage:
Hence, when learning takes over, some other activity
must give way. Often the margin of preference is so narrow that much of the
time he [the adult] allocates for learning is in fact devoted to a
preoccupation with the attractions or obligations of the activity he [sic.] was
compelled to set aside. (1971b, p.427)
Considerable
study may be required to know just how accurate is Howard 's supposition and
what import it may have in the later years. However, certainly the problem of
time allocation must remain of concern to all adult learners and their
teachers:
This subject [time perception] deserves far more
investigation than it has heretofore received. But in spite of the lack of
data, the educator will find that the adult's attitude toward time is one of
the most pervasive factors with which he [sic.] must deal. It is the hidden
item in many decisions to learn or not to learn, as well as what to learn when
the decision to study is made. (McClusky, 1964, p. 162)
Categories
of Need. Howard McClusky’s work in preparation for the 1971 White House
Conference on Aging apparently was a time for him of considerable reflection,
synthesizing from his earlier publications, and fresh ideas. A significant
contribution was his thinking through some implications of this theory of
margin in terms of various age-related needs. He introduced for scholars and
planners to consider five distinct need categories including corresponding
relationships to the theory of margin concepts:
He
subsequently describes need categories in other sources too (1971d, n.d.).
The five-part framework has since been utilized by several people in their research and program design efforts. Graney and Hays (1976), for example, suggest that the needs formed a useful hierarchy. They note that this deductive contribution by Howard McClusky provides "professionals with knowledge about the functional needs of older persons to enable them to [better] guide educational practice." (1976, p. 344)
The five categories are described in the box below.
Of Older
Adults’ Educational Needs Coping needs or life management needs are those
skills enabling an older person to survive by adapting to changing
social conditions, including basic skills in reading, writing,
math, nutrition, health care, intergenerational and technology
advancements. Expressive needs are those met by participating
in an activity for the sheer value or enjoyment of the experience. Arts and Humanities are examples of
expressive classes fulfilling creative needs and improve self image. Contribution needs include the desires of most
people to assist others with their problems and concerns. Peer counseling classes and volunteer
training and involvement opportunities fulfill contribution needs. Influence needs are applicable to all humans
regardless of age. Influence means
to make a difference in the world.
Educational programming fulfills these needs by helping older adults
to identify appropriate roles, develop personal or group skills, and
provide social support to assist them with critical thinking and problem
solving. Transcendence needs stem from the desire for a
deeper understanding of life. These
needs are experienced by all ages but the need becomes more predominate in
later life. Education assists older
adults with this need by providing insight into people of other cultures
and offering a supportive setting for life review. Through meeting and talking with others,
older adults exam the insights of others and come to conclusions about
their life meanings and worth.
Community
of Generations. A promising recent notion of Howard 's is his call for
interaction between the generations in promoting education through the later
years. He cautions that his suggestions still are in a very embryonic state:
Because of the incomplete and provisional state of our
knowledge, this. . . is necessarily exploratory in character and makes no
pretense of constituting a definitive statement of the field. It is offered. .
. primarily as a means of opening up a new domain of practice and inquiry. . .
(1978b, pp.50-51)
The concept of the community of generations is an
intentional variation on a life-span approach to comprehending the wholeness of
life. It is based on the assumption that, although separated by time and
experience, each generation nevertheless has a common stake with other
generations in relating the wholeness of the life-span of which it is a part.
(McClusky, 1978b, p.50)
Differences
will naturally exist between generations because of varying values, beliefs,
and experiences, but such differences only accent the need people have of
learning from one another.
Howard
also suggests that such differences have potential for the teaching and
learning process because a wider variety of instructional strategies can be
employed, strategies that make use of the rich experiences and specific needs
some learners bring to the classroom setting. He offers a projection that all
of higher education will be affected:
It is quite possible that because adults are returning
to instruction in increasing numbers the student body traditionally composed of
a ghetto of middle and upper middle class students will be supplanted by a
student body composed of persons ranging in age from early to late adulthood
and thus pave the way for an intergenerational approach to instruction that
could ultimately transform higher education as we now know it. (McClusky,
1978a, p. 13)
In essence, Howard McClusky is challenging future
scholars to examine inter- generational approaches to instruction so that
improvements in the total instructional process can be made.
Howard
McClusky has demonstrated throughout his adult life exactly what he believes:
that each person has an endless potential, vitality, and resiliency. His
concern for knowing more about how to maximize that potential has influenced
most of his professional activities:
The task of society is to produce a generation of
Persons in the Later Years who are 'models of lifelong fulfillment for the
emulation and guidance of oncoming generations' and that life at its best in
the Later Years should be a guide for education at all earlier years of life
leading thereto. (1976a, p. 11)
He is
such a model and continues to provide guidance in the development of many
educational efforts.
McClusky's
contributions to educational gerontology via early work in adult education have
all helped to foster a rapidly growing discipline. Obviously, the ultimate
value of his work will be its usefulness in spawning research, thinking, and
writing by others. His challenge to colleagues to do so is inherent in almost
everything he has written.
There is
perhaps one more side of Howard that when described will best provide an ending
mechanism for this discussion. He is a "futurist" by nature. He has
shown this both by his perpetual optimism and through his professional
activities. He has long had an uncanny ability to foresee needs and happenings
and to inspire others into enthusiastic activities toward the future. For
example, he foresaw the need for adult educators to become involved in
community development activities long before the community education and
community college movements started their rapid expansion efforts (1939, 1944).
He described the need for education to be “preparation for life several years
before career education, self-directed study, and lifelong learning came into
vogue (1936, 1974). Several years before years before the growth spurt of adult
education began in the United States Howard described how adults learn (3) and
suggested that a big potential for future adult education efforts existed
(1948). He was involved with education efforts for the aging well before his
1971 White House experience. (4) (5) As one more example, Howard and I
taught in a team in 1969 at the University of Michigan what may have been the
first graduate course on the future of adult education.
Howard
used his prognostication skills several years ago to suggest that we are
becoming a learning society:
In brief we are saying that we are well on the road to
developing a culture where learning in some form must become increasingly a way
of life for the vast majority of all ages of the population. To a degree
unknown in any other time in history, schooling for youth will become a
relatively smaller part of a larger, more inclusive societal effort. As
emphasis on the importance of education inevitably increases, adults will step
up their demands for continuing education for themselves, as well as that kind
of education for their children which they will more and more recognize as
necessary for the viability of their future. (1963b, p. 118)
However,
the final realization of such changes will necessitate some rather large and
perhaps difficult modifications in education as we now know it:
To be more explicit, it is my position that the emphasis
on lifelong learning, i.e., the kind of learning that will continue to the end
of life, will require a drastic reconceptualization of the lifelong
developmental stages of human existence in a way that is not currently being
envisaged. (1976a, p.11)
The
required change in the educative processes will affect both adult education and
educational gerontology:
To summarize, by the year 2000 the fields of both Adult
Education and Gerontology will be experiencing a stage of dynamic development.
Adult Education will have moved from the margin to the center of educational
practice and the Elderly, with a growing number of influential spokesmen [sic.]
and reinforced by the pressures of a growing societal concern, will be in a
better position to claim their share of educational resources. The climate will
have become extremely favorable for the development of a wide range of programs
in a diverse assortment of agencies. (McClusky, 1978c, p. 172)
Our challenge is to facilitate excellence as these many
diverse developments unfold. Educational gerontology is still new enough that
we may not yet know exactly what "excellence" is. However, Howard
McClusky has shown us by example and by deed how to move toward such a goal.
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