UNIT 2
2.3 Teaching Methodologies

Teaching Methodologies

An old Chinese proverb states. "Teachers open the door. You enter by yourself."

Rethinking the Goals of Education

A new vision of education is emerging from current research on learning and by our changing economy. An emphasis on higher level thinking includes ability to interpret texts, construct problems and implement solutions, negotiate resolutions in a group setting.

While it is not new to include a thinking curriculum for some students; it is new to include it for "all" students.

Comparison of Old and New Paradigms of Teaching

- Author Unknown

In the online environment, instructors need to "release control of the learning process to the student and feel secure in a different role" (p.173 Dnupfer 1993- Knupfer, N.N. (1993). Teachers and Educational Computing: Changing roles and changing pedagogy. In R. Muffoletto, & N.N. Knupfer (Eds.) Computers in education: Social, political, and historical perspectives. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.

In the online environment it is important to incorporate intuitively designed interfaces which facilitates the individual needs of the learner. Use of technology to navigate for information, has the potential to be much more efficient in accommodating various learning styles than a traditional classroom.

Case Study

According to Marsick (1990), good adult education should be experiential. It should "draw upon the past experience of participants...should be participatory in nature" (p. 225) and "should have an action component, which is a link to future experience" (p. 225). The case study is a method that meets these criteria. Marsick claims the key to a successful case method is the selection of the "right problem situation" (p. 227). The problem situation must be relevant "both to the interests and experience level of learners and to the concepts being taught" (p. 227). The case report should include facts regarding the problem, the environmental context, and the characters of the people involved in the case. Marsick advises that the case report should be factual, but also contain the opinions and views of the people involved. Learners should have access to the problem solution, but not until they have reached their own conclusions and can then compare their results with the actual decision taken to resolve the problem. The case analysis, according to Marsick, can be carried out with the learners working independently or in groups (1990). She advises that if groups are used, then the group should be provided the opportunity to "brainstorm their perceptions of the case" (p. 228) before discussion. She encourages the use of the Socratic method, "a probing, critical discussion that raises new perspectives and digs for underlying assumptions that may not be apparent" (p. 228). One advantage of using the case method is that it "emphasizes practical thinking" (p. 239). Just as in a real situation, learners are required to make decisions "under time pressure with an inadequate stock of information" (p. 239). Marsick further believes that the case method assists learners in identifying principles after examining the facts of the case and then applying those principles to new situations; thus they "learn to formulate problems as well as solve them" (p. 239). Case analysis is equally effective when used in combination with other instructional strategies.

In the online environment case studies can be presented on web pages and discussed through email or conferencing groups. Many case studies are available for access on the Internet or cases can be developed by class groups as collaborative projects. In addition, the vast resources of the Internet can be tapped by students

Discussion Format

http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/tcc_conf97/pres/pitt.html

According to Brookfield, "Of all the methods most favored by adult educators, it is discussion which has perhaps become enshrined as the adult educational method "par excellence" (1990, p. 187). He goes on to say, "discussion is revered as the educational method which is the most participatory and the most respectful of learners" (p. 187) since it encourages active, participatory learning. The discussion format encourages learners to analyze "alternative ways of thinking and acting" (p. 192) and, most importantly, assists learners in exploring their own experiences so that they can become better critical thinkers. Brookfield further argues that discussions should be as diverse as the learners involved. The Internet offers several modes for discussion including (1) mailing lists (listservs) that focus on particular topics and can be set up for only the participants of the course, and (2) bulletin board discussion lists. Both of these options utilize asynchronous communication. Synchronous (real time) communication can be offered by utilizing chat rooms or text-based virtual reality environments, better known as Multi-user Domains (MUDs) or Multi-user Object Oriented Environments (MOOs).

Lecture Format

According to Farrah (1990) the lecture format is one of the most frequently used instructional methods in adult education. Broadwell admits that the lecture format assumes the educator to be the expert; but describes the lecture as "an efficient way of imparting information in a scheduled way without interruption, and with less planning than in most other teaching methods" (1980, p. 3). Cox suggests that, ideally, "Lectures are only there to lay foundations, show the way, ease the passage, as the student works through the subject" (1994, p. 59). Knowles proposes that a good lecturer is one who gets to know his/her students and develops the lecture according to the student needs (1950). The lecture appears to be most effective in accomplishing its specific purposes when used in combination with other instructional strategies.

Online lectures can be presented in a variety of ways. Lecture notes can be placed on a web page for the learner to review. Notes can be put together in a packet for the learner to refer to and either downloaded in file form using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or sent via regular postal mail. Lectures can also be presented via audio or video over the Internet. Since online lectures must, of necessity, be carefully prepared in advance, they are likely to be shorter and more to the point than many lectures in live classroom which, all too often, can extend far beyond the attention span of even adult learners. A short lecture which can be read or listened to in ten to twenty minutes will be likely to give the learner enough information to serve as a basis for further reading, research, or other learning activities. Another obvious advantage of online lectures is that they are readily available for students to reread or listen to again and again as needed. Mentorship The role of a mentor is to empower students by "helping to draw out and give form to what their students already know" (Parks Daloz, 1990, p. 206). The aim of mentorship is to promote the "development of the learner" (p. 206). Thus a mentor serves as a guide rather than a provider of knowledge. According to Parks Daloz, a mentor serves the function of "introducing students to the new world, interpreting it for them, and helping them to learn what they need to know to flourish in it" (p. 207). Mentors in education teach by interpreting the environment and modeling expected behaviors. They also support, challenge, and provide vision for their students.

A major benefit to online mentorship is the opportunity for frequent, convenient communication between mentor and student. Weekly or even daily journals and communications can be sent between mentor and student via e-mail, providing an ongoing "dialogue" which supports the development of the mentor relationship and offers numerous opportunities for timely feedback on student questions, concerns and issues . For busy educators and students, electronic communication can be a welcome, effective alternative to telephone tag and parking problems.

Project Method

According to Knowles (1950), projects are tasks that "grow out of the training being carried on in a course" (p. 45). Projects can be done on an individual basis or within a group. Knowles feels the project method "stimulates interest and gives students an opportunity to pursue their special interests. It also enables the students to obtain practical experience and to gain a sense of accomplishment" (p. 45). Using projects in a learning activity is a good way of making the learning more relevant to the learners.

Good & Brophy (1994) describe two essential components of a project. Projects require "a question or problem that organizes and drives activities, and the activities result in a series of products that culminate in a final product that addresses the driving question" (p. 233). They go on to say that final products should be shared with others and critiqued. The feedback participants receive enables them to "reflect on and extend their emergent knowledge and to revise their products if necessary" (p. 233). Many times an individual project is only critiqued by the facilitator, but by sharing individual projects with other participants, the learner is afforded the opportunity to obtain more diverse viewpoints and feedback. Many of the instructional strategies discussed here fall within the realm of group projects. Group projects can include simulations, role playing, case studies, problem solving exercises, group collaborative work, debates, small group discussion, and brainstorming (Brookfield, 1990; Gilley, 1990; Marsick, 1990; Paulsen, 1995; Rogers, 1969). As with individual projects, participants in group projects should receive feedback in order to expose them to more diverse viewpoints.

Independent and group projects enable online learners to pursue special interests, to write or create for an audience, and to publish or present their findings and conclusions via the Internet. If evaluation and critique standards are presented to all groups or class participants, the learner or group presenting can benefit from the diverse viewpoints and feedback of their peers and professors. The Internet provides the additional potential of obtaining an even broader range of feedback from experts or interested peers who access the final product via a class web page. Kimeldorf (1995) feels utilizing the projects method in online learning can integrate learning into a larger community.

Small Group Work

Small group work provides learners with the opportunity to discuss content, share ideas and problem solve with others (Kemp, et al. 1994). Learners also acquire experience by presenting their own ideas as well as considering ideas put forth by others. A variety of possible group formats can encourage and provide opportunities for interaction within small groups.

One such format is the discussion group which allows learners to "think about a subject under discussion and present their views" (Kemp et al., 1994, p. 150). According to Kemp, discussion within the small group is usually on higher intellectual levels "(specifically analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) than is possible solely with the recall of the information" (p. 150). The educator may play various roles within the discussion group format.

Another format described by Kemp et al. (1994), is guided design. It can provide and encourage interaction in small groups. This type of group focuses on "developing the learners' decision-making skills as well as on teaching specific concepts and principles" (p. 150). Participants work to solve open-ended problems which require outside class work to gather information. This format encourages learners to "think logically, communicate ideas, and apply steps in a decision-making process" (p. 150). Learners are also required to apply the information they have learned, exchange ideas, and reflect on suggested solutions. The instructor's role is to act as a consultant to the groups.

Role playing is another format available for use with small groups (Kemp, et al., 1994) involving dramatization by group participants of a "situation relating to a problem" (p. 151). Each participant "acts out a role as he or she feels it would be played in real life" (p. 151). This promotes "an understanding of other persons' positions and their attitudes as well as the procedures that might be used for diagnosing and solving problems" (p. 151). McComb (1994) suggests using role playing to simulate real-life group work situations. Thus role playing can help learners gain a fuller and richer understanding of a problem or situation. Kemp et al. (1994) also describe a games format which requires two or more groups to compete in "attempting to meet a set of objectives" (p.151). The game is organized under a set of rules and procedures and information is provided that requires decision making and usually follow-up actions. According to these authors, "most instructional games are typical real-life situations" (p. 151). Those utilizing the games format can avoid confusion within the groups by making the rules, procedures, and objectives of the game clear and concise.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) offers several distinct benefits for small group work. First, it allows small groups of students to work independently while still having access to the instructor (McComb, 1994). In some cases, where it is difficult for all members of an online class to meet synchronously for group work, four to five students can be organized according to their time zones, making it possible to find a convenient time to participate in a synchronous communication learning environment. Larger groups can benefit by communicating asynchronously via e-mail or via a listserv.

A second benefit of CMC for group work is that it "equalizes control among participants, (providing) identical access to and control of the CMC environment" (McComb, 1994, p. 165). Factors such as geography, gender, or handicapping conditions do not tend to disadvantage learners in this environment. Thirdly, CMC allow the instructor to respond directly to the questions and needs of particular groups without taking the time of other groups not affected by a problem or situation (McComb). According to Ahern and Repman (1994), CMC permits a level of interaction that is not usually possible in the more traditional classroom.

Symposium

"Series of presentations given by two to five persons of notable authority and competence on different aspects of the same theme or closely related themes Sisco 1990 (p. 285) Sisco, B.R. (1990) forum, panel, and symposium. In Pitt and Clark, "Creating Powerful Online Courses Using Multiple Instructional Strategies," (http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/tcc_conf97/pres/pitt.html)

Self Directed Learning

Self-directed learning can include self-paced learning, independent learning, individualized learning and self-instruction. Self-directed learning is defined by Conner, Wright, DeVries, Curry, Zeider and Wilmsmeyer as "Learning initiated and directed by the learner" (1995, p. 62). Knowles describes self-directed learning as usually taking place "in association with various kinds of helpers, such as teachers, tutors, mentors, resource people, and peers" (1975, p. 18). Whatever terminology is used, self-directed learning places the responsibility for learning directly on the learner.

Knowles believes there is convincing evidence that "people who take the initiative in learning (proactive learners) learn more things, and learn better, than do people who sit at the feet of teachers passively waiting to be taught (reactive learners)" (1975, p. 14). He goes on to say, "They enter into learning more purposefully and with greater motivation. They also tend to retain and make use of what they learn better and longer than do the reactive learners" (p. 14). According to Kemp, Morrison and Ross (1994), "a "true" individualized learning or learner-controlled program would require the design of separate objectives and learning activities for each learner according to that individual's own characteristics, preparation, needs, and interests" (p. 142). Kemp, et al suggest that in many learning situations "learners participating in self-paced learning programs work harder, learn more, and retain more of what is learned" (p. 143). These and other advocates seem to agree that the independent learner is one who is more involved and active within the learning process.

Computer-mediated learning via the Internet, by its very nature, supports the self-directed learner in pursuing individualized, self-paced learning activities. The learner, working at a computer at a convenient time and pace, is able to search and utilize the vast archive and database resources of the Internet and numerous online library catalogs and document delivery systems to research nearly any topic imaginable. He/she can visit libraries, museums and various institutes world wide, talk to professionals, access the latest research, and read electronic newspapers and peer reviewed scholarly electronic journals. He/she can write collaboratively with peers and even publish written and multimedia products on web pages. The self-directed learning possibilities of computer mediated online communication would seem limited only by the learner him/herself.

Service Learning

Service learning is similar to work-based learning in that it provides real world experience and application of skills and competencies. The difference is that service learning is usually on a volunteer basis for a non-profit entity. Requiring service learning for graduation is a popular trend.

Work-based Learning

The School-to-Work movement has a three prong approach to education. It includes school-based learning (traditional class setting), work-based learning (including apprenticeship and internships), and connecting activities. Online Teaching Tools Class Discussion - (threaded discussion) Collaborative Strategies (white board, chat room and threaded discussion) Linked searchable glossaries - students needing clarification on a vocabulary word in the text can click on a "hypertext" word and gain additional information. (ideally add a "pronounce" button to at the glossary level to hear either the word or the narrative version of the explanation.) Individualized Instruction In the beginning some students do not effectively manage their own online learning. Usually this occurs because they do not have adequate computer skills, and they are trying to learn both the course content and computer usage. A remedy could be to individualize their instruction by finding another online student who is at an advanced stage to implement their teaching and to report the process as their online project. Learning Contracts "A formal agreement written by a learner which details what will be learned, how the learning will be accomplished, the period of time involved, and the specific evaluation criteria to be used in judging the completion of the learning" (p. 134). (Bonnell and Caffarella (1991 p. 134) Bonnell, J. M., & Caffarella, R. S. (1991). Learning contracts. In M. W. Galbraith (Ed.) Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction (pp. 133-160). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.