These curriculum materials provide a basic introduction to ageism toward older
adults. Although it is widely recognized that we live in a youth-oriented
society, little attention is paid to the resulting ageism toward older adults
or how this affects our personal and professional relationships. Through
didactic material, discussion questions, and a series of experiential
exercises, these materials help students explore this pervasive phenomenon,
including a section on how ageism can be counteracted.
The materials are designed to be easily integrated into existing undergraduate
and graduate-level courses, including courses in social welfare, public health,
anthropology, sociology, psychology, and others. In doing so, it is hoped that
these materials will enhance the quantity and quality of aging content in
existing courses, so that students can be better prepared for the intellectual
and societal challenges facing an aging society. Instructors are encouraged to
adapt these materials as appropriate to their particular needs. It is suggested
that students complete some of the exercises in the appendix before proceeding
with didactic material to help them identify their own attitudes and biases
about aging.
Development of these materials was made possible by a grant from the Academic
Geriatric Education Program at the University of California at Berkeley. I am
also indebted to Andrew Scharlach, Professor of Social Welfare at the
University of California at Berkeley for reviewing these materials and making
suggestions, as well as to Kris Duermeier, graduate at the School of Social
Welfare, for compiling the annotated bibliography. For further information
about how these material scan best be utilized, instructors are welcome to
contact Barrie Robinson at the School of Social Welfare, University of
California at Berkeley.
I.
What is "Ageism"?
II.
How is Ageism Perpetuated?
III.
What are the Consequences of Ageism?
IV.
How can Ageism be Counteracted?
V.
Appendices
A. Exploring Attitudes About Age and Aging
B. "Act Your Age!" An exercise to identify attitudes about age norms.
C. What is your Aging I.Q.?
D. Bibliography
E. Audio Visual Resources
It is suggested that students complete at least one of the self-assessment exercises
in the appendix before proceeding with the material.
The term "ageism" was coined in 1969 by Robert Butler, the first
director of the National Institute on Aging. He likened it to other forms of
bigotry such as racism and sexism, defining it as a process of systematic
stereotyping and discrimination against people because they are old. Today, it
is more broadly defined as any prejudice or discrimination against or in favor
of an age group (Palmore, 1990).
Erdman Palmore, who has written extensively about ageism, lists the basic
characteristics of stereotyping which forms the basis of ageism in his 1990
book Ageism (pp. 151-152):
1. The stereotype gives a highly exaggerated picture of the importance of a few characteristics.
2. Some stereotypes are invented with no basis in fact, and are made to seem reasonable by association with other tendencies that have a kernel of truth.
3. In a negative stereotype, favorable characteristics are either omitted entirely or insufficiently stressed.
4. The stereotype fails to show how the majority share the same tendencies or have other desirable characteristics.
5. Stereotypes fail to give any attention to the cause of the tendencies of the minority group - particularly to the role of the majority itself and its stereotypes in creating the very characteristics being condemned.
6. Stereotypes leave little room for change; there is a lag in keeping up with the tendencies that actually typify many members of a group.
7. Stereotypes leave little room for individual variation, which is particularly wide among elders.
Ageism is manifested in many ways, some explicit, some implicit. The following piece by Edith Stein illustrates some graphic examples of negative ageism (Palmore, 1990, pp. 3 -4):
"Older persons falter for a moment because they are unsure of themselves and are immediately charged with being 'infirm.'
Older persons are constantly "protected" and their thoughts interpreted.
Older persons forget someone's name and are charged with senility and patronized.
Older persons are expected to 'accept' the 'facts of aging.'
Older persons miss a word or fail to hear a sentence and they are charged with 'getting old,' not with a hearing difficulty.
Older persons are called 'dirty' because they show sexual feelings or affection to one of either sex.
Older persons are called 'cranky' when they are expressing a legitimate distaste with life as so many young do.
Older persons are charged with being 'like a child' even after society has ensured that they are as dependent, helpless, and powerless as children."
1. What are some other examples of positive and negative age stereotypes affecting the elderly? younger age groups?
2. Discuss some of the underlying factors which might account for discrimination against older persons.
Ageist attitudes are perpetuated in many ways. Examples are abundant in the
popular culture such as birthday cards which decry the advance of age, the lack
of positive images of the elderly in advertisements and on TV programs, and the
widespread use of demeaning language about old age. Some illustrative examples
of such language include such colloquialisms as "geezer," "old
fogey," "old maid," "dirty old man," and "old
goat."
In addition, institutions perpetuate ageism. Businesses frequently reinforce
ageist stereotypes by not hiring or promoting older workers. The American
health care system focuses on acute care and cure rather than chronic care
which most older adults need. Also, the federal laws which prohibit mandatory
retirement exclude elected officials and their staff, and highly paid executives
with annual retirement benefits of at least $44,000. Other government policies
which reinforce ageism include use of a higher federal poverty standard for the
elderly and, job training targeted for younger age groups. Another example is
the use of state welfare funds which are often targeted at children and
adolescents, excluding equivalent services for older adults such as adult
protective services and geriatric mental health services.
Human service professionals also perpetuate ageism. This is done more covertly
by denying or limiting services, by not including aging issues in training
material or educational offerings, and by not requiring geriatrics training for
medical students even though older adults will comprise a significant
proportion of their patients. The same criticism can be made about training of
professional social workers who receive little information about the aging
process although many of their clients will be elderly.
Underlying these attitudes are myths and stereotypes about old age which are
deeply entrenched in American society. Even those who
would not say that they are ageist probably have some ageist attitudes based on
distorted or inaccurate information.
Palmore discusses the most common of these negative myths and stereotypes about
aging in his book Ageism: Negative and Positive (1990, p. 18-25). A
summary of his main points follows:
1. Illness. Perhaps the most common prejudice against elders is that
most are sick or disabled. About half of Americans think that poor health is a
"very serious problem" for most people over 65 (Harris, 1981) and
that older people spend much time in bed because of illness; have many
accidents in the home; have poor coordination; feel tired most of the time;
develop infection easily (Tuckman & Lorge, 1958); are confined to long-stay
institutions; have more acute illness than younger people; and that the
majority of elders are not healthy enough to carry out their normal activities.
FACTS: Most elders (about 78% of those 65+) are healthy enough to engage
in their normal activities (National Center for Health Statistics, 1981). Only
5 percent of those 65 and over are institutionalized and about 81 percent of
the noninstitutionalized have no limitation in their activities of daily
living, i.e., eating, bathing, dressing, toileting, and so on (Soldo &
Manton, 1983).
While more persons over 65 have chronic illnesses that limit their activity
(43%) than do younger persons (10%), elders actually have fewer acute illnesses
than do younger persons, have fewer injuries in the home, and fewer accidents
on the highway than younger persons. Thus, the higher rate of chronic illness
among elders is offset by the lower rates of acute illness, injury, and
accidents. In addition there is evidence that rates of disability are
decreasing among elders (Palmore, 1986; Crimmins, Saito, & Ingegneri,
1989).
2. Impotency. A related stereotype is the belief that most elders no
longer engage in any sexual activity or even have sexual desire, and that those
few who do are morally perverse or at least abnormal (Golde & Kogan, 1959;
Cameron, 1970). Even physicians, who should know better, often assume that
sexuality is unimportant in late life (Butler, 1975).
FACTS: The majority of persons past 65 continue to have both interest in
and capacity for sexual relations. Masters and
Johnson (1966) found that the capacity for satisfying sexual relations usually
continues into the seventies and eighties for healthy couples. The Duke
Longitudinal Studies (Palmore, 1981) found that sex continues to play an
important role in the lives of the majority of men and women through the
seventh decade of life. A large-scale survey (Starr & Weiner, 1981) found
that most elders said that sex after 60 was as satisfying or more satisfying
than when younger.
3. Ugliness. Another stereotype is that old people are ugly. Beauty is
associated with youth, and many people, especially women, fear the loss of
their beauty as they age. The following terms reflect this stereotype of
ugliness: crone, fossil, goat, hag, witch, withered, wizened, wrinkled.
FACTS: While our culture tends to associate old age with ugliness, and
youth with beauty, some other cultures tend to admire the characteristics of
old age. For example in Japan, silver hair and wrinkles are often admired as
signs of wisdom, maturity, and long years of service (Palmore, 1985).
Thus, there is nothing inherently ugly or repelling about the characteristics
of old age. Ugliness is a subjective value judgment, or, in other words,
"ugliness is in the eye of the beholder." These value judgments
usually conform to cultural standards of beauty and ugliness.
4. Mental Decline. Another common stereotype is that mental abilities
begin to decline from middle age onward, especially the abilities to learn and
remember, and that cognitive impairment (i.e.g, memory less, disorientation, or
confusion) is an inevitable part of the aging process (Palmore, 1988).
FACTS: Most elders retain their normal mental abilities, including the
ability to learn and remember. It is true that reaction time tends to slow down
in old age and it may take somewhat longer to learn something. However, much of
the difference between older and younger persons can be explained by variables
other than age including illness, motivation, learning style, lack of practice,
or amount of education. When these other variables are taken into account,
chronological age does not provide a significant amount of influence on
learning ability (Poon, 1987).
Most studies of short-term memory agree that there is little or no decline in
everyday short-term memory among normal elders (Kausler, 1987). As for
long-term memory, various community surveys have found that less than 20
percent of elders cannot remember such things as the past President of the
United States; their correct age, birth date, telephone number, mother's maiden
name, or address; or the meaning of ordinary words (Botwinick, 1967; Pfeiffer,
1975). Thus, it is clear that while there may be some increase in long-term
memory problems, the majority do not have serious memory defects. In summary,
significant learning and memory problems are due to illness, not to age per se.
5. Mental Illness. A similar stereotype is that mental illness is
common, inevitable, and untreatable among most aged. Both elders themselves and
many health professionals think that most mental illness in old age is
untreatable, which partially explains why few mental health professionals
choose to specialize in geriatric mental health and also why elders use mental
health facilities at one-half the rate of the general population (Lebowitz,
1987).
FACTS: Mental illness is neither common, inevitable, nor untreatable in
the elderly population. Only about 2 percent of persons 65 and over are
institutionalized with a primary diagnosis of psychiatric illness (George,
1984). All community studies of psychopathology among elders agree that less
than 10 percent have significant or severe mental illness, and another 10 to 32
percent have mild to moderate mental impairment; but that the majority are
without impairment (Balzer, 1980). In fact, according to the most comprehensive
and careful community surveys, the incidence of mental illness among the
elderly is less than that of younger persons (Myers, Weissman, Tischler, Hozer,
& Leaf, 1984).
6. Uselessness. Because of the beliefs that the majority of old people
are disabled by physical or mental illness, many people conclude that the
elderly are unable to continue working and that those few who do continue to
work are unproductive. This belief is the main basis for compulsory retirement
policies and discrimination in hiring, retraining, and promotion.
FACTS: The majority of older workers can work as effectively as younger
workers. Studies of employed older people
under actual working conditions generally show that they perform as well as, if
not better than, younger workers on most measures (Krauss, 1987; Riley &
Foner, 1968). Consistency of output tends to increase with age, and older
workers have less job turnover, fewer accidents, and less absenteeism than
younger workers (Riley & Foner, 1968).
7. Isolation From a third to half of respondents to Palmore's Facts on
Aging Quiz think "The majority of old people are socially isolated and
lonely" and "The majority of old people live alone" (Palmore,
1988). Two-thirds of persons under 65 think that loneliness is a "very
serious problem" for most people over 65 (Harris, 1981).
FACTS: The majority of elders are not socially isolated. About
two-thirds live with their spouse or family (U.S. Senate Special Committee on
Aging, 1988). Only about 4 percent of elders are extremely isolated, and most
of these have had lifelong histories of withdrawal (B. Kahana, 1987). Most
elders have close relatives within easy visiting distance, and contacts between
them are relatively frequent.
Most studies agree that there tends to be a decline in total social activity
with age, but the total number of persons in the social network tends to remain
steady (Palmore, 1981). The types of persons in the social network tend to
shift from older to younger persons, and from friends and neighbors to children
and other relatives.
8. Poverty. Views about the economic status of elders range from those
who think most elders are poor, to those who think the majority are rich. At
present those thinking elders are poor tend to outnumber those thinking elders
are rich.
FACTS: Most elders have incomes well above the federal poverty level
(U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging, 1988). A higher proportion of elders
than the total population have a net worth of over $50,000 and a slightly
higher per capita family income than non-elderly headed households.
However, in 1989 11.4 percent of the elderly had incomes below the poverty
level and 27% were "near poor" , i.e. those with incomes up to 150%
of the poverty level. It is also important to note that certain groups of
elderly experience very high rates of poverty. These include widowed
elderly women (21%), Afro-Americans elders (31%), and Afro-American elderly
women living alone aged 72 or older (64%).
9. Depression. Since many believe that the typical older person is sick,
impotent, senile, useless, lonely, and in poverty, they naturally conclude that
the typical older person must also be depressed.
FACTS: Major depression is less prevalent among the elderly than among
younger persons. However, of the various mental illnesses, depression is one of
the most common among the elderly. Experts are not in agreement about the
extent of its occurrence, but it has been estimated that between 30% to 60% of
the elderly population experience at least one episode of depression severe
enough to interfere with daily functioning (Solomon, 1981). This, along with
the fact that the rate of elderly suicide is the highest of all age groups,
makes depression a significant issue for this population.
10. Political Power. Another stereotype is that the elderly are a
"potent, self-interested political force" (Binstock, 1983). The
assumption is that the political power of the elderly hamstrings our
politicians from undertaking needed reforms.
FACTS: The aged do constitute a large portion of participating voters
constituting about 16% of those who vote in national elections while comprising
12% of the national population (Binstock, 1983). While aging-based interest
groups can exert some influence, elders usually do not vote as a block and,
consequently, have less political power than presumed.
Although much less prevalent, positive stereotypes about aging are also
held by some people. Although they are usually far less damaging than negative
stereotypes, they are based on inaccurate information that reinforces a
distorted view of the elderly. An example of positive age stereotyping is that
wisdom, dependability, kindness and compassion invariably accompany old age.
1. What are some other ways in which ageist stereotypes are perpetuated?
2. How do stereotypes develop? What purpose(s) do they serve?
In general, the consequences of ageism are similar to those associated with all
attempts to discriminate against other groups: persons subjected to prejudice
and discrimination tend to adopt the dominant group's negative image and to
behave in ways that conform to that negative image (Palmore, 1990, p. 91).
Furthermore, the dominant group's negative image typically includes a set of
behavioral expectations or prescriptions which define what a person is to do
and not to do. For example, the elderly are expected to be asexual,
intellectually rigid, unproductive, forgetful, happy, enjoy their retirement,
and also be invisible, passive, and uncomplaining.
Palmore identifies four common responses of elders to these prescriptions and
expectations: acceptance, denial, avoidance, or reform (Palmore, 1990, pp.
96-102). All of these responses can have harmful effects on the individuals.
For example, an elderly person who accepts the negative image may "act
old" even though this may be out of keeping with their personality or
previous habits. This may mean that they stop or reduce social activities, do
not seek appropriate medical treatment, or accept poverty. In essence, this
internalization of a negative image can result in the elderly person becoming
prejudiced against him/herself, resulting in loss of self-esteem, self-hatred,
shame, depression, and/or suicide in extreme cases.
Denial of one's status as an elderly person can also have negative
consequences. One example, lying about one's age may not seem significant, but
it can further erode morale. Another example is the attempt to "pass"
for a member of the dominant, younger group by undergoing cosmetic surgery,
having hair transplants, or using widely advertised anti-aging products such as
hair dyes, skin creams, cosmetics, etc. While these practices are widespread,
the quest for eternal youth can become inappropriate and, ultimately,
self-defeating for those who attempt to stop the natural aging process
entirely.
Avoidance of ageist attitudes may also take many forms. Examples include moving
into age-segregated housing, self-imposed isolation, alcoholism, drug
addiction, or suicide. The reform response, Palmore's last response pattern, is
the antithesis of the avoidance response in that
the person recognizes the discrimination and attempts to eliminate it. This
attempt may be an individual one or a collective one through membership in an
advocacy group such as the powerful American Association of Retired Persons.
Ultimately, stereotypes are dehumanizing and promote one-dimensional thinking
about others. Elders are not seen as human beings but as objects who,
therefore, can be more easily denied opportunities and rights. For example,
elders are frequently misdiagnosed or denied medical treatment because they are
seen as "old" and, therefore, incurable. Elders are also frequently
denied employment or promotion opportunities because they are "old"
and less productive. Such discrimination is also evident on the social policy
level where the elderly are blamed for having medical problems and consuming
public resources rather than seeing them as having human needs requiring
appropriate social responses. Seeing people as objects also increases the
likelihood that they may be subjected to abuse and other cruel treatment.
A final consequence of ageism is that by devaluing this segment of the
population, a vital human resource is lost. This is contrary to many American
values which entail respect for human worth and dignity. Cumulatively, the
elderly represent a vast amount of experience, skill, and knowledge which this
country needs to remain strong and true to its ideals.
1. What person/groups benefit from discriminating against older adults?
2. What are some positive consequences of "positive ageism?"
Rodeheaver (1990) suggests that in order to counteract ageism, changes must be
made in the systems which perpetuate it. Some of these systems mentioned
earlier are the media, popular culture, and institutions such as business,
government, and human service systems. Underlying all of these systems are
ageist attitudes held by individuals who participate in these systems.
Therefore, changing individual ageist attitudes is a fundamental approach to
reducing ageism.
A first step in this process is identifying personal attitudes which
are ageist in nature. This can be difficult since most people will deny that
they are prejudiced. However, until a person is aware of this or her own
attitudes, little progress can be made. Many "aging quizzes" and
exercises are available to identify ageist attitudes and the inaccurate
information which underlies them. Each person must seek out accurate
information and be willing to inform others about the real facts of aging (see
Appendix).
Another approach which can modify ageist attitudes is personal contact with
older adults. This is often an effective way to prevent or reduce the
development of ageism, especially among young children. Many innovative
intergenerational programs have been created which not only benefit children in
this way, but also benefit the older adults. During these programs, positive
aspects of aging can be emphasized so that the children will have a balanced
picture of the older adults - and of themselves as they grow older. A good
example of an intergenerational program is the recording of older adults' oral
history by students.
More formal instruction and education about aging is also needed in
professional schools whose graduates will inevitably serve the elderly. This is
also true for schools of journalism whose graduates will have significant power
in shaping public perception and opinion. In addition, continuing education and
in-service training programs in all fields should also include the aging
process and related issues.
Social action and reform is another approach to counteracting ageism. This
approach is particularly effective when directed at institutions. Examples of
efforts in this area include groups like the Gray Panthers which have watchdog
committees to monitor and respond to negative media images of older adults. The
Gray Panthers has been successful in other efforts to combat ageism since it
stresses intergenerational membership. Civic groups and churches can also be
effective advocates along with other institutions in the community.
1. What are other ways in which ageism can be counteracted?
2. You have been working with a colleague in regard to a mutual elderly client who seems somewhat confused and disoriented. Your colleague states that she intends to recommend to the mental health clinic team that the client be denied services because the client is "old and senile" and therefore can't benefit from clinic services. Role play how you would respond to your colleague's apparent ageism toward the client.
A. Exploring Attitudes About Age and Aging
B. "Act Your Age!" An exercise to identify attitudes about age norms.
D. What is your Aging I.Q.?
E. Bibliography
1. When is a person "old"?
2. When will you be "old"?
3. How should you refer to a person who is "old"? How will you want to be referred to when you are "old"?
4. List some common stereotypes about "old" people.
5. What special entitlements, if any, should an "old" person receive just because of their age?
6. What are some changes we will all experience as we become "old"?
7. What is the worst and best part of growing older?
8. Define "aging well." List some factors which contribute to "aging well."
9. Define "aging poorly." List some factors which contribute to "aging poorly."
We all have opinions about what behaviors are appropriate at certain ages.
These are called "age norms". For each of the items listed below,
assign an age or age range for which the behavior seems most appropriate.
Discuss your answers considering the following questions:
1. What factors influenced your answers?
2. For which behaviors was there the most agreement about ages/age ranges? the least agreement?
3. How did gender influence your answers?
Appropriate Other Factors Age/Age Range to Consider
1. Wearing a short skirt and high heels
2. Living alone
3. Getting married
4. Raising children
5. Being considered sexy
6. Drinking alcohol
7. Driving a sports car
8. Having others make decisions for you
9. Displaying affection in public
10. Running a marathon
11. Running for U.S. president
12. Retiring
13. Becoming pregnant
14. Enrolling in a 4 yr. college
15. Receiving a heart transplant
NOTE: The terms "old", "elderly", and
"aged" refer to persons 65 years and older.
Questions and answers compiled from a variety of sources including AgeWave:
The Challenges and Opportunities of Our Aging America by Ken Dychtwald and
Joe Flower; Why Survive? Being Old in America by Robert Butler;
"Facts on Aging Quizz" by Erdman B. Palmore; and "What is your
Aging IQ?" published by the National Institute on Aging.
True or False?
____1. Most people will become "senile" sooner or later if they live
long enough.
____2. Intelligence declines with age.
____3. Most elderly have little interest in or capacity for sexual relations.
____4. American families, by and large, have abandoned their elderly members.
____5. At least 25% of all elderly live in nursing homes.
____6. Aged drivers have more accidents than younger drivers.
____7. Depression is one of the most common problems of the elderly population.
____8. Only children need to be concerned about consuming enough calcium.
____9. More men than women survive to old age.
____10. Older people tend to become more religious with age.
____11. The majority of the aged are socially isolated and lonely.
____12. The life expectancy for Afro-Americans is about the same as for whites.
____13. The life expectancy of women is four years higher than that of men.
____14. Personality changes with age, just like hair color and skin texture.
____15. All five senses decline with age.
____16. The elderly have the highest poverty rate of all adult groups.
____17. Older adults represent the group at most risk for suicide.
____18. Older adults have more acute, short term illnesses than younger
persons.
____19. The elderly naturally withdraw from participation in community life in
advanced old age.
____20. Hearing loss is the third most common chronic condition for the
elderly.
1. FALSE: Even among those who live to be 80 or older, only 20-25%
develop Alzheimer's disease or some other incurable form of brain disease.
Among the overall elderly population, it is estimated that less than 10% are
disoriented or demented; of
these, some have conditions which reversible through treatment. In either case,
dementia or memory loss is not a normal part of aging, but typically indicates
some organic condition. Further, the word "senility" is a meaningless
term which should be discarded in favor of specific description of the
cognitive impairment.
2. FALSE: Intelligence per se does not decline with age. Most people
maintain their intellect or improve as they grow older. While studies have
shown that the elderly typically take somewhat longer to learn something new
and have somewhat slower reaction times than younger people, this does not
impair their ability to reason and function well.
3. FALSE: The majority of older adults continue to have both the
interest and capacity for satisfying sexual relations well into their 70's,
80's, and even 90's.
4. FALSE: The American family is still the number one caretaker of older
Americans. Most older persons live close to their children with their spouses;
8 out of 10 older men and 6 out of 10 older women live in family settings.
5. FALSE: Only 5% of persons over 65 are living in nursing homes at any
given time. Even among those 75+, only 10% are residents in nursing homes.
6. FALSE: Drivers over the age of 65 have fewer accidents per person
than drivers under age 65.
7. FALSE: Depression is one of the most serious mental health problems
among older adults. As many as 10% of adults of all ages experience serious depression,
but the occurrence is even more frequent among the elderly. An estimated 30-60%
experience a episode of depression severe enough to impair their ability to
function. Despite the high prevalence rates, few elderly are seen in mental
health settings when compared with the young. This is partly attributable to
the fact that depression in the elderly often goes undetected or is
misdiagnosed as dementia.
8. FALSE: Older people require fewer calories, but adequate intake of calcium
for strong bones is important as we age. This is particularly true for women
whose risk of osteoporosis increases after menopause; men also develop
osteoporosis, but in fewer numbers than women.
9. FALSE: Women tend to outlive men by an average of 8 years. There
are 150 women for every 100 men over age 65 and nearly 250 women for every 100
men over age 85.
10. FALSE: Older people do not tend to become more religious as they
age. While it is true that the present generation of older persons tend to be
more religious than younger generations, this appears to be a generational
difference rather than a characteristic of aging. In other words, the present
older generation has been more religious all of their lives rather than
becoming more so in older age.
11. FALSE: The majority of the elderly are not socially isolated and
lonely. According to one study, about two-thirds of the aged reported that they
are never or hardly ever lonely or identify loneliness as a serious problem.
Most elderly have close relatives within easy visiting distance and have
frequent contact. They also reported fairly high rates of socializing with
friends and participation in church activities and/or voluntary organizations.
This level of activity does tend to decline somewhat with advanced age and/or
disability, but contact with relatives remained fairly constant or increased.
12. TRUE and FALSE: In general, the life expectancy for whites is
72 for men and 79 for women; the life expectancy for Afro-Americans is 65 for
men and 73 for women. However, the average life expectancy for Afro-Americans
begins to exceed that for whites after age 80 for reasons that are not well
understood.
13. FALSE: The overall life expectancy for women of all races (78 years)
exceeds that for men (71.5 years) by seven years.
14. FALSE: Personality doesn't change with age. Therefore, all old
people cannot be described as rigid or opinionated, only those who were always
rigid or opinionated.
15. TRUE: All five senses do tend to decline with age, although the
extent of these changes varies greatly among individuals.
16. TRUE: In 1989, the elderly as a group had a poverty rate of
approximately 11.4% as compared with those age 18 to 64 whose poverty rate was
10.2%. However, the near poverty rates are more instructive ("near
poverty" means 125% of the poverty level): in 1990, 19% of the elderly
were poor/near poor as compared to 14.4% of the 18-64 group. Poverty rates for
children exceed those for both the elderly and other adults at 26% poor/near poor
in 1990.
Poor/near poor rates for certain elderly subgroups far exceed the average 19%
poor/near poor figure for all elderly: elderly
minorities are two and three times more likely as non-minority elders to be
poor/near poor; 23.4% of elderly women were poor/near poor in 1990; 25% of the
elderly aged 75+ were poor/near poor in 1990.
17. TRUE: Suicide is a more frequent cause of death among the elderly
than among any other age group, primarily due to the high suicide rate among
older men, especially older white men age 85+. People age 65 and older have a
50% higher suicide rate than the rest of the population.
18. FALSE: Older persons have less acute illnesses than younger persons.
Older adults have more chronic illnesses than younger age groups however.
19. FALSE: Although the "disengagement" theory was once
accepted to explain the relative decrease in activity for some older adults, it
has generally been discredited as a valid explanation. More current research
has explored the vast diversity among the elderly and many new theories have
been developed which better explain the variety of aging observed in this
heterogeneous population.
20. TRUE: After arthritis and heart disease, hearing loss is the most
common chronic disorder reported in the elderly population.
Bibliography
Achenbaum, W. A. (1978). Old age in the new
land. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Allen, J. A., & Burwell, N. Y. (1980). Ageism and racism: Two issues in
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Appendix E
Audio Visual Resources
Slides / audiocassette:
Attitudes About Aging
Running time: 15 minutes / slide/tape
University Film and Video
Continuing Education and Extension
University of Minnesota
1313 Fifth Street S.E., Suite 108
Minneapolis, MN 55414
(800) 847-8251
An overview of available research literature that focuses on the views of a
variety of groups toward aging. An exploration of the effect these groups have
on general att tudes and bel efs about aging is included, as well as the way in
which attitudes influence behaviors exhibited toward elders. The importance of
professionals developing an awareness of age-related attitudes is stressed.
Recommended for professionals as a useful aid in training others to be more
perceptive.
Videos:
Ageism: Golden Years or Leaden
Running time:
Lutheran Center on Aging
911 Stewart Street
Seattle WA 98101
(206) 467-6532
Exposes ageism as a social phenomenon that is finally emerging into the public
spotlight. Offers vignettes and a book of discussion questions in attempt to
help people explore their own issues about aging.
Growing Old in a New Age: Part One-Myths and Realities of Aging
The Annenberg Corporation for Public Broadcasting Collection
Attn.: Diane Driver
Center on Aging
University of California
535 University Hall #7360
Berkeley, CA 94720-7360
(510) 643-6427
Examines ageism and debunks common myths of aging (i.e. most people are ill;
there is no sex after 60; the right product can halt the aging process; aging
brings memory loss; older family members are ignored).
The Later Years
Insight Media
Running time: 30 minutes / video
Attn.: Andrew Scharlach
School of Social Welfare
329 Haviland
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720
(510) 642-0126
This program explores changing societal attitudes towards the elderly. It
distinguishes between primary and secondary factors, relating each to attitude,
behavior and lifestyle. The program compares the advantages and disadvantages
of various lifestyles of the elderly (i.e. living alone, living with children, living
in a nursing home), as well as dating and sexual activity among older adults,
and how men and women experience aging differently.
Old Like Me
Running time: 28 minutes / video
Filmakers Library, Inc.
124 East 40th Street, Suits 901
New York, NY 10016
(212) 808-4980
To f ind out how society treats older people, a young reporter, Pat Moore,
disguised herself as a helpless 85-year-old woman. She experienced the terror
that society can inflict on the young and old. Here is a provocative film to
help people understand the feelings and problems of being old.